# The History of How Scientists Discovered Climate Change

The scientific discovery of climate change was not a sudden breakthrough, but a centuries-long accumulation of global evidence. It began with ancient observations of local environmental shifts, evolved through nineteenth-century physics identifying the greenhouse effect, and culminated in the late twentieth century with modern supercomputers mapping the atmosphere. Today, decades of remarkably accurate climate models and an overwhelming intergovernmental consensus affirm the profound impact of human activities on Earth's climate system.

## Early Observations of Climate and Environment

Long before the invention of the thermometer or the establishment of global meteorological networks, humans understood that their local climates were subject to change, often pointing to their own activities as a contributing factor. From ancient philosophy to the vast administrative records of imperial dynasties, the roots of historical climatology stretch back thousands of years. 

Historical climatology is the study of historical changes in climate and their effect on human civilizations, utilizing "archives of society" such as written records, logs, and agricultural data, rather than the "archives of nature" like ice cores [cite: 1, 2]. Through these societal archives, historians have traced how humans first began to perceive their relationship with the atmosphere.

### The Ancient World and the Islamic Golden Age

As early as the fourth century BCE, the Greek philosopher Theophrastus—a successor to Aristotle—wrote extensively about the relationship between human land use and local climate [cite: 3, 4]. In his work *De causis plantarum*, Theophrastus observed that draining marshes to create farmland seemed to make the surrounding countryside colder [cite: 3]. Conversely, he noted that clearing thick forests opened the land to sunlight, subsequently warming the ground [cite: 3]. This belief that human agriculture could "temper" or improve the climate persisted for more than two millennia. It profoundly influenced European colonizers who later arrived in the Americas, convinced that felling the New World's dark forests would tame its harsh winter cold and bring about a milder climate [cite: 3].

During the Islamic Golden Age, scholars produced highly nuanced theories regarding human-environment interactions. The ninth-century polymath Al-Jahiz wrote extensively in *The Book of Living* on how environmental factors, including temperature and humidity, shaped the biological and psychological traits of humans, animals, and plants [cite: 5]. Several centuries later, the great fourteenth-century Arab historian and sociologist Ibn Khaldun wrote his monumental work, the *Muqaddimah*. Ibn Khaldun observed the deep nexus between population density, resource depletion, weather variation, and public health [cite: 6, 7]. He posited that overpopulation and dense urbanization caused the "corruption of the air," leading to localized climatic shifts, famines, and the spread of respiratory diseases and pestilence in heavily populated, densely built cities like Cairo and Fez [cite: 7]. His theories represented some of the earliest systemic thinking about human vulnerability to environmental degradation.

### The Archives of Society: Imperial China's Climate Records

Perhaps the most exhaustive pre-modern climate tracking occurred in Imperial China. The Chinese imperial tradition placed immense political and religious significance on the "Mandate of Heaven," a doctrine that equated natural disasters—like severe droughts, floods, and unseasonal temperatures—with the moral failings of the ruler [cite: 8, 9]. Because maintaining harmony in nature was viewed as the personal responsibility of the emperor, local magistrates meticulously recorded weather events, crop phenology (the timing of plant blooms and harvests), and extreme weather [cite: 8, 10]. 

These documents, known as local gazetteers, alongside dynastic histories and private diaries, created an unbroken archive of climatic conditions spanning millennia [cite: 8, 10]. For example, the *Yunshan Diary*, authored by Bi Guo during the Yuan Dynasty, provided enough precise daily weather and phenological records to allow modern scientists to reconstruct an abnormal cold snap in the Taihu Lake Basin during the winter of 1308 to 1309, marking the regional transition into the Little Ice Age [cite: 10]. 

In the twentieth century, pioneering meteorologist Zhu Kezhen utilized these vast historical records to map 5,000 years of temperature fluctuations in China, tracing shifts from the Neolithic Yangshao culture (circa 5000 BCE) through the Shang, Ming, and Qing dynasties [cite: 11, 12]. Zhu's work demonstrated that periods of global warming and cooling were discernible long before modern instruments existed, proving that historical texts could be reliably paired with physical science to reconstruct the paleoclimate.

### Pre-Industrial Human Footprints

While early philosophers debated whether humans could alter the climate, modern paleoclimatology has revealed that early human societies were already leaving distinct atmospheric footprints on a massive scale. 

According to the "early anthropogenic hypothesis" championed by paleoclimatologist William Ruddiman, human-induced climate change began approximately 7,000 years ago during the Neolithic Revolution [cite: 13]. Ruddiman argues that as early humans transitioned from hunter-gatherers to farmers, their widespread use of slash-and-burn agriculture cleared vast forests across Europe and Asia. Because early farmers had little incentive to maximize yield from small plots, they utilized inefficient rotation methods, deforesting up to five times more land than they actually farmed at any given time [cite: 13]. This process released massive amounts of carbon dioxide, and shortly after, the expansion of flooded rice paddies in Asia began releasing significant amounts of methane [cite: 13]. 

Physical evidence of these early, massive impacts is scattered across the globe:

| Region | Era / Date | Human Activity | Environmental Impact |
| :--- | :--- | :--- | :--- |
| **Central Africa** | ~3,000 years ago | Emigration of Bantu-speaking farmers into the Congo River basin. | Sediment cores show intense weathering unlinked to rainfall, indicating massive deforestation for agriculture and iron smelting [cite: 14]. |
| **Central America** | ~11,000 years ago | Settlement by Clovis hunters and early gatherers. | Charcoal records from Lake La Yeguada in Panama show repeated, unnatural forest firing and small-scale clearing [cite: 15]. |
| **New Zealand** | ~1300 CE | Arrival and colonization by the Māori people. | Antarctic ice cores reveal a sudden, massive spike in black carbon deposition, matching paleofire records of Māori land-clearing [cite: 16]. |

These early alterations of the landscape prove that human capacity to alter atmospheric chemistry and local ecosystems predates the Industrial Revolution by millennia.

## The Archives of Nature: When Climate Brought Down Civilizations

While humans were beginning to impact their environments, naturally occurring shifts in global and regional climates frequently devastated highly complex societies. By studying the "archives of nature"—ice cores, tree rings, stalagmites, and lakebed sediments—scientists have reconstructed the catastrophic impacts of ancient megadroughts. 

### The Classic Maya Collapse

In the Mesoamerican lowlands, the Classic Maya civilization experienced a profound and devastating collapse between 800 and 1000 CE, a period known as the Terminal Classic [cite: 17, 18]. For decades, historians debated the primary cause of this societal fracture, citing warfare, changing trade routes, and environmental degradation [cite: 18, 19]. 

However, high-resolution climate proxy data recently provided crucial answers. By analyzing oxygen and hydrogen isotopes trapped in the crystalline structure of lakebed gypsum from Lake Chichancanab, scientists discovered that the Maya collapse correlated with an extreme and prolonged reduction in precipitation [cite: 18]. During the Terminal Classic, annual rainfall in the Maya lowlands dropped by nearly 50% on average, plunging up to 70% during peak drought conditions, while relative humidity dropped by up to 7% [cite: 18]. 

Further evidence emerged from the Grutas Tzabnah cave in the Mexican state of Yucatán. By analyzing the annual growth layers of a stalagmite, researchers reconstructed sub-annual rainfall records spanning from 871 to 1021 CE [cite: 19, 20]. The chemical fingerprints revealed that the Maya were hit by a catastrophic series of wet-season droughts, including one continuous megadrought that lasted for 13 consecutive years [cite: 20, 21]. Unable to sustain their water-intensive agriculture through more than a decade of failed harvests, the society fractured. Monument construction halted, dynasties fell, and the surviving populations eventually abandoned the southern lowland cities to migrate north toward sites like Chichén Itzá [cite: 19, 20].

### The Anasazi of the American Southwest

A similar climate-driven tragedy struck the American Southwest. The Anasazi, or Ancestral Puebloans, built a flourishing agricultural civilization centered around the magnificent, multi-story stone "Great Houses" of Chaco Canyon [cite: 22, 23]. Relying on the cultivation of corn, squash, and beans in a delicate desert environment, the Anasazi population surged to an estimated 100,000 people living across 10,000 pueblos during a highly predictable, wet climate period between 900 and 1150 CE [cite: 22, 23]. 

However, the climate eventually betrayed them. Tree-ring data, which provides precise, year-by-year accounts of soil moisture, indicates that a severe, prolonged megadrought struck the Four Corners region between 1276 and 1299 CE [cite: 24]. The sudden drop in rainfall and shortened growing seasons rapidly exhausted local resources. The Anasazi had survived shorter droughts before by temporarily migrating, but their massive population density now made adaptation impossible [cite: 22, 25]. The resulting resource depletion triggered widespread starvation, socialization for fear, and brutal internecine warfare [cite: 23, 24]. Ultimately, the cataclysmic drought forced the Anasazi to permanently abandon their iconic cliff dwellings at Mesa Verde and migrate south toward the Rio Grande [cite: 17, 22, 23].

These archaeological warnings underscored a vital reality for modern researchers: highly complex, densely populated human societies are acutely vulnerable to rapid shifts in atmospheric conditions. 

## The 19th Century: Physics Unlocks the Greenhouse Effect

The transformation of climate knowledge from qualitative historical observation into quantitative physics began in the early nineteenth century. Scientists began to realize that Earth's temperature was not solely dictated by its distance from the sun or its internal geothermal heat, but by the specific, invisible chemical composition of the air.

### Joseph Fourier and the Theoretical Blanket

The story of modern climate physics begins in 1824 with the French mathematician and physicist Joseph Fourier. Fourier was studying the flow of heat and calculated that a planet of Earth's size and distance from the sun should be much colder than it actually is—well below freezing [cite: 26, 27, 28]. Since the Earth was clearly warm enough to support abundant life, Fourier hypothesized that the Earth's atmosphere must act like a transparent insulator. He proposed that the atmosphere allows visible sunlight to pass through and warm the surface, but prevents the resulting invisible heat (infrared radiation) from easily escaping back into space [cite: 28, 29]. This concept would eventually become universally known as the "greenhouse effect," though Fourier himself did not coin the exact term. 

### Eunice Newton Foote and John Tyndall

The physical mechanism behind Fourier's theoretical insulation was first demonstrated empirically by Eunice Newton Foote, an American scientist and inventor. In 1856, Foote presented a groundbreaking experiment to the American Association for the Advancement of Science [cite: 28, 29]. She placed various gases in glass cylinders, exposed them to sunlight, and measured their temperatures. Foote discovered that cylinders filled with water vapor and carbon dioxide heated up significantly faster and stayed hot much longer than cylinders filled with regular dry air [cite: 28, 29]. She presciently suggested in her paper that an atmosphere containing higher proportions of carbon dioxide would result in a warmer Earth [cite: 29].

A few years later, starting in 1859, the Irish physicist John Tyndall conducted a series of highly precise experiments using a custom-built ratio spectrophotometer to measure the infrared absorption of various atmospheric gases [cite: 27, 30]. Tyndall conclusively proved that nitrogen and oxygen—which together make up 99% of the atmosphere—are almost entirely transparent to radiant heat and do nothing to warm the planet [cite: 28, 30]. However, he found that trace gases like water vapor, carbon dioxide, and methane were incredibly powerful absorbers of heat. 

Tyndall quickly recognized the disproportionate power of these trace molecules. He noted that even though aqueous vapor was present in tiny amounts, its heat-absorbing action was 16,000 times greater than that of a single atom of oxygen or nitrogen [cite: 30]. Tyndall famously described this atmospheric phenomenon as a "blanket more necessary to the vegetable life of England than clothing is to man," noting that without it, the island's warmth would pour unrequited into space, and the land would be held fast in the "iron grip of frost" [cite: 30]. 

### Svante Arrhenius Calculates the Future

By the end of the nineteenth century, the Industrial Revolution was running at full tilt, powered by the immense and unprecedented burning of fossil fuels. In 1896, the Swedish physical chemist Svante Arrhenius connected the dots between Tyndall's atmospheric physics and the smokestacks of industrial Europe [cite: 26, 31].

Arrhenius was originally trying to solve the geological riddle of the Ice Ages. He wondered if a dramatic drop in atmospheric carbon dioxide (which he referred to as carbonic acid) could strip away the Earth's thermal blanket and plunge the planet into a deep freeze. To test this hypothesis, he utilized observational data regarding infrared absorption and spent months performing between 10,000 and 100,000 tedious calculations by hand to estimate how different concentrations of CO2 would affect global surface temperatures across varying latitudes [cite: 26, 32, 33]. 

His results were groundbreaking: Arrhenius became the first person to quantitatively predict that doubling the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere would raise global temperatures by roughly 5 to 6°C (9 to 11°F) [cite: 26, 31, 33]. He also calculated that halving the CO2 concentration would drop temperatures by 4 to 5°C, enough to trigger an ice age [cite: 31, 33]. 

| Year | Scientist | Key Discovery | Legacy in Climate Science |
| :--- | :--- | :--- | :--- |
| **1824** | Joseph Fourier | Calculated that Earth should be frozen based on solar distance alone. | Originated the concept of the atmosphere as a heat-trapping insulator (the greenhouse effect). |
| **1856** | Eunice Foote | Demonstrated experimentally that CO2 and water vapor trap solar heat. | First to explicitly suggest that higher atmospheric CO2 would warm the Earth. |
| **1859** | John Tyndall | Used a spectrophotometer to precisely measure infrared absorption of gases. | Proved that trace gases (CO2, H2O), not nitrogen or oxygen, are responsible for trapping heat. |
| **1896** | Svante Arrhenius | Calculated the global temperature impact of altering CO2 concentrations. | Provided the first mathematical prediction that doubling human CO2 emissions would cause global warming. |

Arrhenius clearly recognized that humanity was currently performing a grand planetary experiment by burning coal. However, living in chilly Sweden, he viewed the prospect of a warmer Earth as a highly desirable outcome, suggesting it would allow future generations to "live under a milder sky and in less barren surroundings than is our lot at present" [cite: 28, 33]. He also vastly underestimated the pace of human industry and economic expansion. Arrhenius predicted it would take roughly 3,000 years for humanity to burn enough coal to double atmospheric CO2 levels [cite: 33, 34]. In reality, human emissions accelerated so rapidly throughout the twentieth century that CO2 levels have risen by 50% in just over a single century [cite: 35, 36].

## The 20th Century: Data, Computers, and Rising Curves

For the first half of the twentieth century, Arrhenius's calculations were largely ignored or dismissed by the broader scientific community. A prevailing belief held that the vast oceans acted as a limitless carbon sink, capable of safely absorbing any excess carbon dioxide produced by human industry, rendering the atmospheric impact negligible [cite: 37, 38]. Furthermore, prominent physicists like Knut Ångström argued that CO2 absorption bands overlapped with water vapor, meaning adding more CO2 would not trap any additional heat [cite: 31, 37].

### Guy Callendar to the Keeling Curve

This scientific complacency was shattered in 1938 by Guy Stewart Callendar, a British steam engineer and amateur meteorologist. Taking time off from his day job, Callendar meticulously compiled historical temperature data from 147 weather stations worldwide. Doing all his calculations by hand, he proved that global temperatures had actually risen by 0.3°C over the preceding 50 years [cite: 36]. He directly linked this observed warming to industrial CO2 emissions, reviving the greenhouse theory and countering Ångström by showing that CO2 and water vapor absorbed heat in slightly different spectral bands [cite: 36, 39]. 

Though the meteorological establishment remained highly skeptical of Callendar's findings, the dawn of the Cold War and the 1957–1958 International Geophysical Year brought a massive influx of military and government funding to the Earth sciences, particularly oceanography and atmospheric monitoring [cite: 39, 40]. In 1957, oceanographer Roger Revelle and physical chemist Hans Suess utilized new radiocarbon dating techniques to trace the isotopic signature of industrial carbon [cite: 39]. They proved that the oceans were not, in fact, absorbing all the carbon humanity was emitting. The ocean surface had a chemical bottleneck, meaning a significant portion of fossil fuel CO2 would inevitably accumulate in the atmosphere [cite: 39]. Revelle famously noted that humanity was carrying out a "large scale geophysical experiment" that could not have happened in the past and could not be reproduced in the future.

To track this accumulation, American scientist Charles David Keeling began taking daily, high-precision measurements of atmospheric carbon dioxide atop the pristine Mauna Loa volcano in Hawaii in 1958 [cite: 41, 42]. Keeling's continuous monitoring produced a jagged, upward-sloping graph now known as the "Keeling Curve." It provided undeniable, iconic proof that atmospheric CO2 was rising steadily year over year, permanently altering the chemical composition of the global atmosphere [cite: 27, 36].

### The Birth of Computer Climate Modeling

As CO2 levels climbed, the advent of the digital computer revolutionized scientists' ability to predict the physical consequences. In 1956, physicist Gilbert Plass used early computers to dissect the atmosphere layer by layer, calculating how radiation moved through each stratum. Plass confirmed that adding CO2 would significantly alter the Earth's radiation balance, calculating that a doubling of the gas would result in a warming of 3 to 4°C [cite: 38, 39]. 

By the late 1960s, scientists at the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), notably Syukuro Manabe and Richard Wetherald, developed the first basic computerized model of the entire atmosphere [cite: 28, 43]. Their pioneering 1967 paper demonstrated that doubling atmospheric CO2 would raise global temperatures by about 2°C [cite: 43]. This marked the first true General Circulation Model (GCM), a foundational breakthrough that recently earned Manabe the 2021 Nobel Prize in Physics [cite: 36, 43]. 

Despite persistent claims by modern climate skeptics that early models were flawed or overestimated warming, retrospective analysis has proven them to be remarkably prescient. A comprehensive 2020 study led by Zeke Hausfather evaluated the performance of 17 distinct historical climate models published between 1970 and 2007 [cite: 44, 45]. The researchers compared the models' forecasted surface temperatures against the actual real-world temperature observations recorded in the decades following their publication.

| Evaluation Metric | Hausfather Study Results (17 Models Evaluated) |
| :--- | :--- |
| **Highly Accurate Projections** | 10 models perfectly matched real-world temperature observations based on their original emission assumptions [cite: 44, 46]. |
| **Accurate Underlying Physics** | When adjusted for minor mismatches in actual vs. predicted greenhouse gas emissions, **14 of the 17 models** accurately simulated the physical response of Earth's climate [cite: 45, 46]. |
| **Overestimated Warming** | 4 models projected more warming than was actually observed [cite: 44, 46]. |
| **Underestimated Warming** | 3 models projected less warming than was actually observed [cite: 44, 46]. |

The data confirms that since the 1970s, climate models have successfully and accurately predicted the warming the world is experiencing today, validating the foundational physics of climate science [cite: 44, 45].

## Ice Cores and the Deep Past

While physicists and computer scientists modeled the future, geochemists sought to understand the long-term history of the atmosphere. To do this, they needed samples of ancient air. 

In the 1980s, Soviet and French scientists drilled thousands of meters deep into the Antarctic ice sheet at the Vostok station, extracting long cylinders of ice [cite: 36]. Because snow traps tiny bubbles of ambient air when it compresses into glacial ice, these ice cores act as frozen time capsules [cite: 36, 41]. By analyzing the chemical composition of these microscopic bubbles, researchers were able to directly measure the ancient atmosphere.

The initial results pushed the climate record back 150,000 years, and subsequent drilling in 2004 extended it back an astonishing 800,000 years [cite: 36]. The data revealed a terrifyingly clear, lockstep relationship spanning the Pleistocene epoch: every time CO2 levels went down, the Earth plunged into an ice age; every time CO2 levels rose, the Earth warmed [cite: 36, 39]. The ice cores also proved unequivocally that current atmospheric CO2 concentrations—hovering around 280 parts per million for 10,000 years before spiking past 400 parts per million today—are far higher than at any point in the last 800,000 years [cite: 36, 42].

## The Formation of the IPCC and the Consensus Era

By the late 1980s, the fundamental scientific understanding of human-caused global warming had crystallized. Observational data confirmed the Earth was warming, computer models accurately predicted the trajectory, and paleoclimate data highlighted the severe risks. The science was ready to be translated into global policy.

### Politics and the Creation of the IPCC

In 1988, the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) and the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) formally established the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) [cite: 47, 48]. Interestingly, the structure of the IPCC was heavily shaped by political friction rather than pure scientific design. 

Prior to 1988, international climate science advice was handled by the Advisory Group on Greenhouse Gases (AGGG), a small, independent group of scientists [cite: 47, 49]. The United States Environmental Protection Agency and State Department wanted to leverage this science into an international convention to restrict emissions. However, the conservative Reagan administration was deeply wary of allowing independent, un-checked scientists to dictate international environmental policy, fearing they would issue "radical environmental pronouncements" that could force heavy economic regulations upon industry [cite: 48, 50]. 

To rein in the scientists, the U.S. government pushed to create an *intergovernmental* body. Under this structure, scientists would draft the scientific assessments, but the reports—specifically the critical "Summary for Policymakers"—would have to be debated line-by-line and endorsed by consensus from the participating member governments [cite: 47, 48, 49]. The unintended consequence of this politically cautious design was that it produced an incredibly robust, virtually unassailable scientific consensus. Because the IPCC's findings must be unanimously approved by the governments of the world—including oil-producing and heavily industrialized nations—its conclusions are universally recognized as rigorous, highly vetted, and inherently conservative [cite: 47, 48].

### Measuring the 99 Percent Consensus

As the IPCC released successive Assessment Reports through the 1990s and 2000s, its language shifted to reflect the overwhelming weight of evidence. In 1995, the IPCC cautiously noted a "discernible human influence" on the climate; by 2021, the panel stated that human-driven warming is an "unequivocal" and "established fact" [cite: 42, 51].

Outside of the IPCC, multiple peer-reviewed studies have sought to quantify exactly how much agreement exists among actively publishing climate experts. In 2004, historian of science Naomi Oreskes reviewed nearly a thousand scientific abstracts published over a decade and found zero papers that explicitly rejected anthropogenic (human-caused) global warming [cite: 52, 53]. Subsequent mega-studies have repeatedly analyzed tens of thousands of papers. Today, the peer-reviewed literature reflects a near-unanimous consensus: studies from 2019 to 2021 conclude that between 98.7% and over 99% of actively publishing climate scientists agree that human activities are the primary driver of the current global warming trend [cite: 43, 52, 54]. 

### Inoculation Against Misinformation

Despite this overwhelming scientific agreement, public perception has frequently lagged far behind the science. For decades, vested corporate interests—particularly within the fossil fuel industry—have utilized a strategy of "false balance" to delay regulatory action [cite: 55, 56]. By funding a tiny minority of contrarian voices and presenting them to the media as an equal side in a "scientific debate," these groups successfully manufactured doubt [cite: 56, 57]. This exact tactic was pioneered heavily by the tobacco industry to deny the health risks of smoking in the twentieth century, and was seamlessly adapted to cast doubt on climate science [cite: 56, 58].

Social scientists have found that exposing the public to this manufactured doubt significantly reduces belief in climate change and lowers support for climate action [cite: 57, 58]. However, research into psychological "inoculation" provides a potent solution. Just as a biological vaccine introduces a weakened virus to build immunity, preemptively explaining to the public the specific techniques of science denial—such as the use of "fake experts," cherry-picked data, or logical fallacies—effectively neutralizes the polarizing effects of misinformation [cite: 55, 58]. When news consumers understand *how* they are being manipulated by denialist strategies, the misinformation loses its power, protecting their understanding of the scientific consensus regardless of their political ideology [cite: 55, 58]. 

## Bottom line

The discovery of climate change is one of the most robust and heavily corroborated scientific endeavors in human history, building upon thousands of years of historical observation and over 150 years of atmospheric physics. From John Tyndall's glass tubes in 1859 to modern supercomputer models that accurately predicted today's warming decades in advance, the evidence that human greenhouse gas emissions drive global temperatures is unequivocal. While uncertainties remain regarding the exact pace of future ice sheet collapse, the localized severity of weather extremes, or precisely how societies will adapt, the fundamental physics of global warming—and humanity's role as its primary driver—are no longer a matter of legitimate scientific debate.

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45. [The Discovery of Global Warming: Summary](https://history.aip.org/climate/summary.htm)
46. [Scientists Reach 100% Consensus on Anthropogenic Global Warming](https://stem.elearning.unipd.it/pluginfile.php/814772/mod_folder/content/0/Scientists%20Reach%20100_%20Consensus%20on%20Anthropogenic%20Global%20Warming%20Enhanced%20Reader.pdf?forcedownload=1)
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48. [A Climate of Corporate Control](https://www.ucs.org/sites/default/files/2019-09/a-climate-of-corporate-control-report.pdf)
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18. [sci.news](https://vertexaisearch.cloud.google.com/grounding-api-redirect/AUZIYQESPRQJHZPVATV0Z_mdDC6b6bc4iNZtK6NE77zbCS3TOC8FwZPwMrxIGWNHKWAyL_GhqWS_ChgdNZr41IoEJgr7tH7jySiY4d9BZirOyEuliGeqhE6Xctvj9t-j7hgjjXPo3TaNeklNbrm2KsARCViYvJbKcuvIKWyvvqSGHtMZp9Kku9tZ4rIbNzbE9x9G)
19. [theartnewspaper.com](https://vertexaisearch.cloud.google.com/grounding-api-redirect/AUZIYQG4f9K8Fe5fmKuPW832DftIphtLHsJEwjQB7VEoVOqC1sytHb3NRxJLSNrFTs92fnyCmJqyPvI1ieITxXtC928dnqyP36VHMfFJsmQ3qODe4cNzONpPJMs2WbmOqG3qhB5qOt4W0c8Y1TOlrTy7kRopgVZMoA8im4_I7HYhkoz9o3Va41hDFwsNePZHIaF8AkugRg==)
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30. [envchemgroup.com](https://vertexaisearch.cloud.google.com/grounding-api-redirect/AUZIYQHkg29GS2AeSLTGo45xXQ38-A5tBjtNamb2XMd04QasaF0L5BJyOHgG11KlKSXS2sXgcE647tvzyfD-Ujy28DdlMhaDeWx0L9sqV6KAc58_funIVOCig1BCkYVQJ7hINdN11dyagNtDPNNchfpg3OoaXl-lm-dfsaSCaIPC9v1zGTMG0d0iWdrY5CVgaZbwUTRNforY5Hv5)
31. [wikipedia.org](https://vertexaisearch.cloud.google.com/grounding-api-redirect/AUZIYQGJxmo6-ZdvmMWmCtEgxw6vQw6Rzdty5idbjI9AVky0UTt6n-tAyrfB03J21j7yVrgWdA-c84X3WsyRvj8D7Hm_poJ4EOaKhheRC2ZPKZzPMLH8_7fu1LxiSzJCrWFFrqGNguCQ)
32. [wordpress.com](https://vertexaisearch.cloud.google.com/grounding-api-redirect/AUZIYQHtgJ3SEQUNEAn4MXba_UPq9DLtgiGZiGIHjnS269u62o2JDxD5zKtyhhaA_5Q03ttf1_MgAV7ua53C3suSQiDjXWI5Rx5FrauKL8t2993e-KTzIoC3E7Wq-pn4N1RB6S6XD50zIa7zflnwInqCe_4L4DjW07_PQlN4ct5OGGx6l0ELPuGvxhTKBk3rKWGHbX3_yw5vd5b1kllWcTlcog==)
33. [theguardian.com](https://vertexaisearch.cloud.google.com/grounding-api-redirect/AUZIYQETtFSDHaDWXRueLlol7WgKW1a6JqaUp3_NSNblKeIwRaqvK8GcayOAJhvFSVkB_3EIOY2qlJzspc089EX9ISu3lX3tXTDsd0e9NZBmENYWwCanAhx20FcwcYwgZUjCCtIZCmLmP17gQzJ4VCy7GqVtjk_ZrCKlRcAWf3PoAy8MRzDLbLbPMqP4iGa6Awjym7XW)
34. [researchgate.net](https://vertexaisearch.cloud.google.com/grounding-api-redirect/AUZIYQF4mOOSHyCCs-t2OQCAdvuhqyvCS_Ctnfn7jBd72CZu71sT4LE8lANAKpRVQtcJPSKvJepAwVsgKg33zfsHKhZGwYWcR0ikMeEX3CMqisJKCxUpB2uFf5wEFpoK_YWvBcZD9GqBDKeWHb3o_2lAjJz0RSiJI-YoIwdwmKYlp9XraWjge66hMcB_gGN4bhGPd0DdqrDXBXd7g6JyjtXQrDGHWfrfAQ==)
35. [rigb.org](https://vertexaisearch.cloud.google.com/grounding-api-redirect/AUZIYQFz6P7GTdzZ5lF7hI96Xl_S2y5b5g4BYezji2-RraQdu43pko4Yxhr6tX8I_OXIj-o59PCAHYP4wdQReJ07ZdfagdsqwA2O2Cxqwd_Gc2Ai9ygFwtTii2J5m0WhboT5xUk7N2fl0J_YO2KHqbklJacWPp4xyxd0ojvH)
36. [ukri.org](https://vertexaisearch.cloud.google.com/grounding-api-redirect/AUZIYQE-SDDs2vlwfpyrwPCZd_u-ROCj5tjyt1weUvyF827R2H5ZELfj5JxvRH_nYTY1KKBOUQw9uslRRiIgYWN57FEeaS4X12tx0hxvwkrOYckMwzT4Z2CXSOqj3ocgO9RZB-VRMW8KwNx77UMGhmeBF2BzOSbufPnFQVBRsOTtmGiKyuwKjb-1ETxR1H9_xg==)
37. [lesswrong.com](https://vertexaisearch.cloud.google.com/grounding-api-redirect/AUZIYQFbXAKS0DUi35PbDfM0z2q1z1ihVuTCUf7IeZ3UIuAfYDZqvg1bDkiR5gyumDt_N5too7-3r9hBWI6xm8xpN77-ON1mDLPeU79oTbiNnBGq8Y28m_2_CXfrlAwCA54hKOIUZZdv2YTC-8pLwXIer3waOZZ3gE3V_bF5d7W2OVT3vo-MeJNnpieNc9-q5NfQT1JS-7CxElWj)
38. [skepticalscience.com](https://vertexaisearch.cloud.google.com/grounding-api-redirect/AUZIYQFbwTxBYdsVfftBzkb3HbkebaABD--sT57iVUGZivPTsDawV2oq61GogQ5oW7Wj6JpT09S8Cxu76SvPjy9zrGaP4EL8h8OuqlPQ7RGDkYTaibAedfT27kINqyVsFQnYoJmRM9_mqATL81ig4KvbH6k=)
39. [ossfoundation.org](https://vertexaisearch.cloud.google.com/grounding-api-redirect/AUZIYQH8XhlU1qfWi5Y88TV_GvHwIYqFr0u8BWFUlvXarvlyeePKuKhlS5bCODOzOYxMFJAVjvWbUOvxS5vIPnU-wC3WIw4BP-ZUd0pMSIPnSIfltjjADysgQBTFBVzKMIEHnSYIPuiyJ7dru_V8Q58YNVd_WmjUKXtv64TXFn4UbheghkI8P6t0l6o8CCqHG7xZ7w==)
40. [aip.org](https://vertexaisearch.cloud.google.com/grounding-api-redirect/AUZIYQFyaffc3TJLUMgzkTBFPS3M2xGiteK8VUoZ9RrR84boWc4VY0ZqIBl9itXSNLia5O2dQJYdqPmJdw4zLa9yckDxFpMcCGwTbL2_PndUmHMrNB_r3DRcBhqYK-nwvb6kUJ7Huw==)
41. [ipsl.fr](https://vertexaisearch.cloud.google.com/grounding-api-redirect/AUZIYQEkIuCqUluQNCbXRWbqMka6ymPUuJ78NOniaZ6y0ejA_sjbaENcc_Y6n1Y8zmI-tGUAHEo7IrWzWv0XKr9B43uHXVCE6t7ZGKKytjzuEeQIxN3dxUlwVX3iOk4BCrW9ytRHnHrvEB3TVkIecG9Y4CfB-PTleoyV6zhK3kDceNpvwLCDFg==)
42. [ipcc.ch](https://vertexaisearch.cloud.google.com/grounding-api-redirect/AUZIYQFAOzqzQTlGDaRjVADaNbW4hJYnikqE7ma4r3EhyKPZ-qFNFgVv8bX3E46A5LLksvXbjzR4UDMJh3La0HCbmgLB3ZOgRnYhwSlF_3hBzLQ4nF7G3_agkK-iDH_qW-pPc8kqnEN386OJXDZKORILDxqSJwxc6Cz49K4J5w==)
43. [unipd.it](https://vertexaisearch.cloud.google.com/grounding-api-redirect/AUZIYQEiY01Z_Rowz5Q0FqQgnDF-zQMm-G7YvFLY_75WWLPm6NAqAynML-iFSR-AQVc_jASRa71wF99zcJ1WBIhwtu_w2RtNDgL6c68qi5WtTkUNMwGLinMRq8QorWS_L7htXSZr6InCrY2XFTI9O0cOGi9W2ZF-wnog3xDHNvKgI8CLn3ZNG0ZQdzTbCTeFl_XKxRK5_tymveT2Ku7xcHTVkfH_Tkf1eiht0FyPWn6O_yfw-q4kE36y2KjTF2RA8Um0XG2odkVD74RPosR23tC_X4f6bmJ5WNlU7yZnQg7hFfkGoXgVBc-iFXmsboF8aV_fXxvTr1ijFm7b)
44. [cbsnews.com](https://vertexaisearch.cloud.google.com/grounding-api-redirect/AUZIYQGLzZXMd0wHb8yOi4UVyYzh7R4_VflhNcA0JxQecMpu7ONrRfXt_oSo6Tv0PWqauSwlz3narRnazmmDBBA9wjL-VwX8RCLap1Oca70njxGZzoYwu2sa98uUgy3-4Y64w77bjXGv4soddn9VTgrBTdeklwvngB_8oSUAVlhnXMVt0cf-gmeAGf511uMEWUO8b9-eXOK4c2J3jYZsrlWxfvb09FCWsknFBTG5tYNzm8K8VF4=)
45. [realclimate.org](https://vertexaisearch.cloud.google.com/grounding-api-redirect/AUZIYQGjDM-pOfn1X5Z2lKnJ7CnON5rSqg0gk5TT72csQI5Sw7sNicy9kaIY0ms1psw_yQ6lVl1C6YPiUyReDhcXMDoLmgtYKtXfPWaVdhbxbqeSB4NzUSh-U_HtZGmmrgCrjM9mEnJOOnT7oDJwsZZpipDmBd95IpLFzRo9PKH_iOembBYbTqxtQxFa0BjMpqryg4fqKymwGXkTYl9-SMApdMJ90eqcXHntMDHQPdBijWc=)
46. [theguardian.com](https://vertexaisearch.cloud.google.com/grounding-api-redirect/AUZIYQEZm0HmuWRcXzQG6ev2GCWf0fe80u9yCUCc9wbUunHb2GuH2B4baUBMttVPUY1NOX9K6fxHz5sV719JTjUIyPjhZLVfF5vYooPdh-zogHr32iN7TSiHsedMTBM14CUzycEgaDfDVw2Ski9tB8Qc5noDMtnDN94zTGuNDVdOqemUemQCuSFCsXOXG4lhZOKg-Ye1iPBa7r2ASm1dYcTClcgkDWR0G2GFx7gbQU3UgQ==)
47. [wikipedia.org](https://vertexaisearch.cloud.google.com/grounding-api-redirect/AUZIYQGn-ULrM_2vuSUxJ-h_QBDf3v5KGfbYfyVMh0SVC9x4kskBAeNVxrV7pGeJ_EEQsRqtZiIoumBQG8Ly8hAYYROsJ4eHIhowY4HsvPLiRkf4nEHOac1k13QIAN_fgqxl7-O3u-p4zrVnQMWkYzfafOzT1rj6GOn85_Uw5i4kAg==)
48. [planthro.org](https://vertexaisearch.cloud.google.com/grounding-api-redirect/AUZIYQFXEjgQjhiWMDeZR0WnCSUiujq8Ucj0ZSIdjrSMRIUD2ONyoiNZHn03lQk8LJWRsj1qQEGXCKaN3XEye6WXs_4tJP7R1QG4aj5gY5N51EP-G7z7FDatK3DTZJckCllNUsYilNwmTYuIk4cjBYL9jlWTC4DfO2_aiiuIL1bVj7g6)
49. [cambridge.org](https://vertexaisearch.cloud.google.com/grounding-api-redirect/AUZIYQEPzGsNmtF3WEr3iF51Yu6RQbqkCREh4WJQLkhBB5Z1076S45jqsd8-iMBf6IahZCDJh-B1qKLYuDV5AV6W-HntpT-x5YM8RmIPWlGfROTLhCKZ6qi2EJw44wU4G5J05sUeJkiInEf3zLsHqtFLcV4NcRwxFmBcULEjl2gEbbXMqRF84eYFHVRhmrYxuuBdCQc99_YUIaj3g4fb5EY0HDbCmheAe_YHGA==)
50. [researchgate.net](https://vertexaisearch.cloud.google.com/grounding-api-redirect/AUZIYQHjNI9wcsgwtv90TU60aQSXaW9ww6AXBvFmiEX79kQzKZSeo4pyw6Cm4Da6PJhgEuuSl9sXBBY_y-jjC-GKkQN7SHhJAXKkXlVMXABaUyKRBk0zZREENGwYQWmyPiglrM39VsRjkf5PyBLqrlAlNfNyMzo3aLasEnidB4NPbBBKKJ4WTH3OUakPYdA4I5FZwFbdHkHbtsFS-1T3Fi43AZVouUvjuo8=)
51. [nasa.gov](https://vertexaisearch.cloud.google.com/grounding-api-redirect/AUZIYQGv0zcfxqvwIMgycJKVGUlwUz6slxAKdEuyK5Bce-mx8rLEVk-XV3yn7AbHYXIBvOrkS3wuDyMyL0BVo6ABb57wLwqrKoTih_MaCwPoXFmjNiZUbi0To8ftPlpe-VuFsrDpAudnu9DmJYiClpzjrAvd2zdl)
52. [manifezt.org](https://vertexaisearch.cloud.google.com/grounding-api-redirect/AUZIYQGg3bNB09G8AzLx3_nwsJzq8mHgqBUCIoWI45qlfFI2Vt6DGnqPM5oUb3AWpTRjDtBLnFhXTi0ufB6ZrJZUBlqBE_GMr2SqEuPSmTgXgzASydE1ks6Ycdb6ccnkwVvZLRGWZ6uV9l_5BFK6986XY9X2zzrYyOhe)
53. [ucsd.edu](https://vertexaisearch.cloud.google.com/grounding-api-redirect/AUZIYQFv7Juo7_6l4zcuJ3tdbq6bFS4ot6OPkfr5G41-BIUP2USqnyQvfPDYR6lt8zed3SalOPLjMpSKDWRzMNju3W0W3X_TMq4HikgWAA-REHj1ln5aRECqsW4vgK50PEXrGEQnEvoW5P1XcfDsa2RU6meWVxHEwGAAaFGBK8DSEGuWd51QzWrVO1PMFPGBeQ==)
54. [wikipedia.org](https://vertexaisearch.cloud.google.com/grounding-api-redirect/AUZIYQFeUauA3MRU6xrKf3xa8IcOVkcrAYf4GrMYq4tF4-_LnOUx_5sJGjNxrnInpnzR9N5hkbByxHZkux_7ZRvjSxoQkY_9L6_6t93WHXnSGiZYoLLU5HSd-QUNuDjjbrVCt7omr6TYuEHmnjGLajx292obosTglmDzafvOBw==)
55. [yale.edu](https://vertexaisearch.cloud.google.com/grounding-api-redirect/AUZIYQFZLV0tetmGQ5M7LsTv-Xlrr2enWJ6zfDKfRSubPBQGamu_0MGuNK7sDDteCm2w_o8ibH_t321gmfCSWJzRYdorWcLjsc8Uq4FHc0prmaoDpEe6ZI2-VrGKkNSDrct8wY_NZnuxNIelSMtPIW1W_9EPibgI2zVA5YLF9EQHfrzslIkumYRsZHG8e0x2MIL9rGL0RhcqCtuakiPiIEnC5oPKsR8=)
56. [ucs.org](https://vertexaisearch.cloud.google.com/grounding-api-redirect/AUZIYQGx_K8i55fQZDur4SHPoEHGga6Ylw8K7R0HXWdJ63ICMccvXY8pWUJY_mB2rBq6wVGDBxKutoSGPjiv-E43c47IhVe6h_r7xVHVg-svydnbwqQJ3ewVzrVeDjImgIZf_lN2_bLzFQx9nFNrqg9yCH2_Ad4O-Hg0v46fmReozwBbNlul1KoUZe_PryvTGBKM8g==)
57. [forbes.com](https://vertexaisearch.cloud.google.com/grounding-api-redirect/AUZIYQEcKLTSw3a4QZ3ZPOkE_Yj5UEMgCdDY1RpjFkymtQZYrF2LDrwgIzXAU2od2RSGy5dqJ0ChWsvIvBkjy2AEY81jOtTDl4LiwuGdyLZFaQbvabtV_hcDTUJ3jEI7CP8NIumHyZ2u4kdoZya4oXY5SUhx3BrOYew3KwowBMO_fJ5rKiPVp04rrbPTfUFDUQhJKV2nHXdmF6HIP_AcnsGcJfKiBi4w2vahLeN2ALG9kg==)
58. [youtube.com](https://vertexaisearch.cloud.google.com/grounding-api-redirect/AUZIYQEboq0E1slqhWieXkc3csd_11kbwlpPUWWZPkzKCMVTC2WZgj8G_5G_IH21eRiAV4WePqjEU3MZyljydxg0iSKkRDsZey99VWXvRpXFf4J7ChQYh4Nc_DNr8bwiFNtQJw6t)